CITIES CLIMATE
PROTECTION CAMPAIGN

BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT

The Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council has committed itself to the Cities Climate Protection Campaign as was set out by a Local Government Resolution.This Resolution was signed on 15 July 1997. It was resolved that:

• the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council commit itself to the Climate Protection Campaign according to following five milestones based on the international commitment by July 2000:

1. To profile the energy use and emissions for the base year of 1990.
2. To forecast energy use and emissions for 10 -20 years from the base year.
3. To establish a reduction target that, should at a minimum, stabilise emissions in 2010 or 2015 at 1990 levels. Many cities have already undertaken this campaign.
4. To develop and finalise a local action plan that aims, firstly, to reduce emissions and energy use in the City's own operations, and then to extend such action plans to reduce emissions in communities. This action plan will also incorporate public awareness and education campaigns.
5. To proceed with implementation measures, even if it means independently of other milestones.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The focus of the Cities Climate Protection Campaign is to reduce the Greater Johannesburg's energy consumption through various alternative strategies due to its inefficient use of energy sources. Remedial strategies will include pollution control, public awareness and education programmes by focusing on energy use, transport, industry, agriculture and waste management sectors. The ultimate aim would thus be to achieve a more energy efficient urban environment through the reduction of extreme greenhouse gas emissions.

These set milestones can only be achieved through a co-ordinated and agreed upon process and by involving all relevant stakeholders and role players in Greater Johannesburg. Firstly a significant change can only be made by putting into operation certain controls and legislation. Thus Greater Johannesburg's role as local government is quite challenging and very significant to bring about the necessary changes. It is important that this project must benefit all citizens of Greater Johannesburg.

WHAT IS GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE?

Climate change, which is the change in average (mean) temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction, storm patterns, the level of the oceans and other atmospheric phenomena, is of global environmental concern. In the last few years there has been slight changes in the degree of annual average temperatures and rainfall variations. A changing climate is therefore natural and expected, but there is a well-founded concern that the unprecedented human industrial and development activities of the last decades have caused changes beyond natural variation. Thus many regions, including South Africa, could suffer from an accelerated rate of natural disasters such as floods, droughts, food shortages and disease epidemics. The wider and more devastating implication is that plants and animals may not be able to adapt as quickly to climate change as humans can (ICLEI, 1999).

CLIMATE CHANGE STRATEGY IN SOUTH AFRICA

By ratifying the Convention, environmental scientists committed themselves to undertake studies on the effects of climate change in the country. As a result of these studies it is thought that the most important areas of concern are water resources, health, agriculture and forestry, the coastal zone and bio-diversity.

The objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at levels that will not have an adverse effect on the climate.

The Convention aims to control the rate of approach to these levels over a period of time in order to:

• allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
• ensure that food production is not threatened, and
• enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

The Convention is guided by five main principles:

• intergenerational equity;
• recognition of specific needs and circumstances of developing countries;
• the precautionary principle;
• sustainable development; and
• the need for global co-operation and an open international economic system that would lead to sustainable economic growth.

It has also been agreed that a National Country Study for South Africa be initiated to collect information for a national inventory of greenhouse gas emissions. The results of this study will provide the foundation of a database of these emissions that will be kept up to date by submission of data by emitters, like the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council once the study has taken off, on a regular basis.

The National Study will also result in some preliminary evaluations of mitigation and adaptation options by making use of identified technologies that could be marketed as well as the establishment of a clean technology centre (National Committee on Climate Change, 1998).

THE ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The natural greenhouse effect causes the mean temperature of the Earth's surface to be about 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would be if natural greenhouse gases were not present. The natural greenhouse effect creates a climate in which life can thrive and allow man to live under relatively comfortable conditions. However, an enhanced greenhouse effect refers to the possible increase of the mean temperature of the Earth's surface. This will be as a result of an increase in the concentrations of greenhouse gases due to human activity.

The emissions of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄) and lower atmosphere ozone (O₃) from nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) trap energy received from the sun, to warm up the earth. Without this occurrence there would be no life on earth. However the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas) have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. With more such gases trapped in the atmosphere there is likely to be a greater heating than what would be expected, and this has been referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect. The question now is just how much warming will occur? Scientists are worried that the implications of such an occurrence could be vast and something mankind might not be prepared for.

South Africa is in the top twenty countries globally, responsible for emitting over 1% of all global emissions. The main reason for South Africa emitting greenhouse gases in such large quantities is that this country is well endowed with coal. Coal produces more carbon dioxide per unit of energy than other fossil fuels (oil, natural gas). However, through the use of coal at least 80% of the countries energy's needs are met. In large parts of Greater Johannesburg excessive amounts of coal is being burnt.

Greater Johannesburg, as one of the most urbanised areas in South Africa, is also bearing the consequences of such a status: that of an overpopulated area, with too few services and infrastructure, with too many vehicular motion and too few vegetation in the city (development into natural open spaces). Plants act as a natural cleaning agent for the atmosphere, by taking in carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) from the air and releasing moisture to the air as part of the photosynthesis process. With a noticeable lack of plant life in the city, ground and air conditions become warmer, thus amplifying the atmospheric warming problem. Greater Johannesburg is already experiencing slightly warmer average summer temperature, longer summer periods and uncommon winter rainfalls. This change in climate has been more evident over the last few years. These changes, however, can also be attributed to the El Nino phenomena caused by sea level changes, which has affected the global climate to quite an extent.

Research has shown that small changes can result in major changes in the long term that will influence the health of a highly urbanised and dense population. A number of international conferences and conventions, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, have confirmed that the recognition of the problem of climate change is one of the biggest challenges facing nations in the next century. Greater Johannesburg's local government thus faces an enormous challenge to bring about practical strategies to change the deteriorating state of our local climate.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Local Government's role in climate protection in many countries has been minimal until a few years ago. In many western countries where there are controlling legislation against air pollution, inefficient energy use and gas emissions, enforcement of these laws are still lacking.

Greater Johannesburg faces enormous challenges, with regard to urban environmental issues in its townships and informal settlements on the outskirts of the city centre. The guiding responsibility for local government is to uphold the principle that it is the right of every citizen of Johannesburg to a safe and healthy environment in terms of the national institution, but most importantly that each citizen also has a responsibility to participate in their respective environments.

One of the key issues with regard to a safe and healthy environment in the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, is that of energy. The South African Policy Discussion Document aims to improve social equity by addressing the energy requirements of the poor taking into consideration that the electrification of all townships and informal settlements is beyond the affectability of the local councils. However, electricity is just one form of energy. There is also a need to find alternative ways to accommodate the needs of these people, with regard to energy forms that will not compromise environmental health or increase hazardous gas emissions (National Committee on Climate Change, 1998). 

One of the factors influensing the Climate Protection Campaign is the quality of air in Greater Johannesburg, and follows in the tabel below, according to the DPSIR model, described previously.

Air quality management capability is the capacity to generate and utilize appropriate air quality information within a coherent administrative and legislative framework, to enable the rational management of air quality. The components of air quality management capability are therefore: the human, technical and financial resources required to provide useful information on the sources, current concentrations, impacts and trends of ambient air pollution; and, the regulatory and administrative framework required to formulate, implement and enforce emission controls. It is therefore the process by which air quality is assessed and response strategies developed and introduced (UNEP, 1996).

In order to assess the capability of an air quality management plan, it is necessary to answer three key questions:

• Has the air quality objectives been stated and are they realistic and appropriate?
• To what extent is information required for decision-makers to develop management strategies available to them; being used in the most effective manner; and of adequate quality for its intended use?
• Is there an administrative and legislative framework to ensure that emission control strategies will be implemented and enforced?

Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council has already taken the first step towards protecting its local climate, by participating in the Cities for Climate Protection Campaign. Although there are no clearly written laws pertaining to the protection of air pollution, especially for energy use and gas emissions specifically, there are pieces of legislation which encapsulates these issues one way or another. The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965 and the Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989 are examples of some of the laws, although it is difficult to enforce these Acts. This however should not detract from the importance of clear environmental rules and regulations to preserve environmental quality. The following principles will act as a guide to try and reduce energy levels.

• Integrate energy planning at the national level, to provide the best overall mix of energy sources including renewable energy sources such as hydro-electric power, wind power, solar power and bio-mass, and non-greenhouse emitting energy sources such as nuclear power. The likely need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions some time in the future must be one consideration among the many in determining this mix.
• Increase generation and transmission efficiency and more use of hydro-electric power, by making use of the southern African power pool.
• Sustainable use of biomass fuels in rural areas, including activities to prevent and reverse the loss of trees
• Making use of fuels, which release less greenhouse gas per unit of useful energy delivered. For example, include the greater use of natural gas and liquid petroleum gas as an industrial and domestic energy source in place of coal and electricity, provided that leaks are strictly controlled and safety issues are addressed.
• Electrification, where it replaces less emission-efficient energy sources, or where the benefits to human health and development outweigh the net increase in greenhouse gas emissions
• Management of the demand for energy so that supply can be more efficiently provided, by technologies and pricing policies which reduce the peaks in electricity demand.
• Programmes to promote energy efficiency in homes, businesses and industry.
• Accessing international funds, which allow more efficient and less polluting measures to be taken (National Committee on Climate Change, 1998).

CONCLUSION

Environmental quality has a profound impact on peoples' everyday lives. By meeting the five milestones to reduce energy emissions and greenhouse gases, the Greater Johannesburg council is committed to involve all stakeholders of the environment from private sector to businesses, to raise public awareness and to launch education campaigns with grass-root level communities.

REFERENCES

Internation Council for Local Environmental Initiatives 1999: Cities for Climate Protection: Campaign Update. ICLEI: Canada.

National Committee on Climate Change 1998: Discussion Document on Climate Change. DEAT: Pretoria.

UNEP 1996: Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities. UNEP: London.

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